- A Buddhist View of Women: A Comparative Study of the
Rules for Bhik.su.niis and Bhik.sus Based on the Chinese Praatimok.sa
By In Young Chung
Abstract
A generalized view of women in Buddhism is imposed by almost one hundred additional
rules and the "Eight Rules" upon nuns. Some scholars, writers, and practitioners
have asserted that the rules in the Praatimok.sa subordinate nuns to monks.
However, I argue that the additional paaraajikas for nuns treat sexual matters
seriously because of the fertility of females. Some sa.mghaava"se.sas for nuns
provide safeguards against falling victim to lustful men. Some ni.hsargika-paayantikas
for monks forbid them from taking advantage of nuns. Two aniyatas for monks show a
landmark in trust in women. Furthermore, seven adhikara.na"samathas provide
evidence of the equality of men and women. Many of the additional paayantikas for
nuns originated because of nuns' living situations and social conditions in ancient India.
Finally, the totally different tone and discrepancies in penalties for the same offenses
between the paayantikas and the "Eight Rules" suggest that the
"Eight Rules" were appended later.
INTRODUCTION
I will make known the course of training for monks, founded on ten reasons: for the
excellence of the Order, for the comfort of the Order, for the restraint of evil-minded
men, for the ease of well-behaved monks, for the restraint of the cankers belonging to the
here and now, for the combating of the cankers belonging to other worlds, for the benefit
of non-believers, for the increase in the number of believers, for establishing dhamma
indeed, for following the rules of restraint. Thus, monks, this course of training should
be set forth.(1)
Vinaya-Pi.taka
There is a generalized view of women in Buddhism implied in the Buddhist monastic rules
for bhik.su.niis(2) and bhik.sus(3) in the vinaya.(4) Referring to the monastic rules for bhik.su.niis, most Buddhist
scholars, writers and practitioners agree that the rules in the vinaya subordinated
the Bhik.su.nii sa"ngha(5) to the Bhik.su
Sa"ngha.(6) Many people are also potentially
misled into thinking that the rules in the vinaya are unfairly more harsh for bhik.su.niis
because of the larger number of rules, including the "Eight Rules,"(7) which are only for bhik.su.niis. In addition,
many bhik.sus and even bhik.su.niis believe that bhik.su.niis must be
subordinated to bhik.sus because of the prescriptions set forth in the Eight Rules.
As a result, some Buddhist scholars, writers, and practitioners claim that bhik.su.niis
as women have been discriminated against in the monastic rules. For example, Kate Wheeler
asserts:
He [Gautama Buddha] required nuns to submit to Eight Special Rules(8) explicitly subjugating them to monks . . . and later added at least 84
additional precepts for nuns on top of the monks' 227, often stipulating worse penalties
for similar infractions.(9)
Diana Y. Paul explains the vinaya:
The first text translated below describes the subordination of the nun's community to
that of the monks, indicating the lack of autonomy among the women's community and their
subsequent deprivation of the power to define their religious obligations along norms that
they themselves established. Unlike the Christian organizational structure of nuns which
was separate from that of monks, the Buddhist nuns in ancient Indian society were
accountable to the monks, and their organizational structure was subordinate to that of
the monks. They were directly governed by the monks at joint meetings of both orders.(10)
Rita M. Gross also describes the vinaya rules as:
. . . placing all nuns lower in the hierarchy than any monks . . . .(11)
Nancy Schuster Barnes explains the rules:
However, by imposing rules on nuns which would place them in a permanently inferior
position in all their interactions with monks, the monks reserved for themselves the
control and leadership of the entire sa"ngha.(12)
Richard H. Robinson and Willard L. Johnson say:
The Blessed One [Gautama Buddha] conceded that women are able to attain arhant-ship
but laid eight special regulations on the nuns, subordinating them strictly to the Order
of Monks.(13)
Susan Murcott mentions:
The nun's sa"ngha modeled itself after the monks' sa"ngha, only
the nuns' rules and regulations were stricter. The purpose of these stricter rules was to
keep women's supposedly more wayward nature under control and to keep final authority in
the hands of the monks.(14)
Richard Gombrich contends:
. . . [T]here were two social hierarchies he [Gautama Buddha] never questioned: age and
sex.(15)
Uma Chakravarti comments:
A wide range of restrictions were placed on bhik.su.niis, who were even required
to offer their alms to the monks if they ran into them.(16)
Audrey Mck. Fernandez mentions:
However, even today there are a couple of hundred more rules for women than men, which
has rankled women and has kept who knows how many from leaving lay life.(17)
Although most Buddhist scholars and writers contend that bhik.su.niis were
subordinated to bhik.sus by having so many additional rules and the Eight Rules
imposed upon them, I disagree. Rather, a close and comparative examination of the Buddhist
monastic rules for both bhik.su.niis and bhik.sus reveals a compassionate
and practical regulation of the daily monastic life of both men and women, based on the
realities of life at the time the rules were formulated. This is seen in the meticulous
care and compassionate understanding of women's "alms life"(18) in the vinaya. It is perhaps a mistake to depend solely on the
existence of the additional monastic rules for bhik.su.niis, without examining
their origin or social context, to form a generalized Buddhist view of women.
Therefore, the main purpose of this paper is to examine the rules for bhik.su.niis
and bhik.sus in the Praatimok.sa.(19)
I believe that the guidelines for discipline set down in the rules in the Bhik.su.nii
and the Bhik.su Praatimok.sas allow us to infer a Buddhist attitude toward women.
This paper, by comparing the rules for both bhik.su.niis and bhik.sus,
presents a different interpretation of the rules.
The text used in this paper is primarily from the Chinese Ssu fen lu, the vinaya
of the Dharmaguptaka School.(20) However,
because no English translation of the Chinese Ssu fen lu is available, when the
rules are the same in both the Chinese and the Paali Vinayas,(21) I prefer to use an English translation of the Paali vinaya
because this text is easily accessible to Westerners. According to W. Pachow,
The Dharmaguptaka [vinaya] follows very closely the Paali texts in most
cases, not merely in numbering the series but also in contents, except the VII section in
which, it adds 26 prohibitory rules regarding the Stuupa.(22) And that is unique among all the available texts.(23)
E. Frauwallner also says that the Dharmaguptaka vinaya is one of the most
complete and well preserved of the vinayas. Its numbers and contents are very close
to those of the Paali vinaya.(24)
Sukumar Dutt says:
The most complete body of the monastic laws, however, is to be found in the
Vinayapi.taka of the Theravaada Paali canon.(25)
Chatsumarn Kabilsingh also explains that although there is no definite proof that the
Paali vinaya is the oldest and the only original text, through a comparative study
of the rules in six vinaya schools,(26)
she suggests that the Paali vinaya did not have any rules added to it later as did
the other vinayas, and that its contents are very old because the rules in the
Paali vinaya are always shared with either one or more of the other schools.(27) The Paali vinaya has been transmitted
by the Theravaada School and is observed by Theravaadin bhik.sus today. The
translations of the Paali vinaya available in English are: Hermann Oldenberg's
translation,(28) T. W. Rhys David's and H.
Oldenberg's(29) and I. B. Horner's.(30)
On the other hand, the Dharmaguptaka vinaya was translated into the Chinese as
the Ssu fen lu tsung or Caturvaga vinaya by Buddhayasas with Chu Fo-nien,
possibly between 410 and 412 C. E. in the capital of China, Ch'ang-an.(31) The Chinese Ssu fen lu (vinaya of the Four Divisions)
consists of four parts: Bhik.su-vibha"nga,(32) Bhik.su.nii-vibha"nga,(33) Skandhaka,(34) and
the appendices. The Ssu fen lu has been very influential and widely used in East
Asian Buddhist countries.
The Praatimok.sa of Dharmaguptaka was used in all convents of China as
the disciplinary code. Beside, the vinaya school (Ssu-fen-Lu tsung), founded
in China by Tao-hsuan, also accepted the disciplinary rules of the Dharmaguptaka as
the most authoritative work.(35)
The rules contained in the Ssu fen lu are still observed by the Chinese, Korean
and Vietnamese bhik.sus and bhik.su.niis today. Even though the only Bhik.su.nii
sa"ngha existing in the world is in the tradition of the Dharmaguptaka vinaya,
so far as I have been able to discover the Chinese Ssu fen lu is not available in
English, particularly the rules for bhik.su.niis. In her book A Comparative
Study of Bhikkhunii Paa.timokkha, Kabilsingh says that she used the Chinese Dharmagutaka
vinaya which had been translated into Thai.(36)
In the following, I give the meanings of the rules, rather than translating word for word.
In order to understand the rules more easily, I have included comparative tables of the
rules for bhik.su.niis and bhik.sus side by side in each category of the Praatimok.sas.
The Praatimok.sa is a collection of monastic rules contained in the vinaya
Pi.taka(37) (Basket of Discipline), one of
the three large collections of the Buddhist canon known as the Tripi.taka. In addition to
the vinaya Pi.taka, the Tripi.taka includes the Suutra Pi.taka (Basket of
Discourses), and the Abhidharma Pi.taka (Basket of the Special Teaching). Many
scholars have explained the possible meaning of the Sanskrit word Praatimok.sa(Paali:
Paa.timokkha), but these explains remain speculative. Sukumar Dutt and Gokuldas De,
who represent the majority opinion, say:
Paa.timokkha . . . can be equated to Skt. Praatimok.sa, which from its
etymological parts lends itself to interpretation as something serving for a bond, the
prefix praati meaning "against" and the root mok.sa meaning
"scattering," though I have not been able to discover any instance of the use of
the word precisely in this sense in Sanskrit.(38)
The term 'Paa.timokkha' is best derived from the word 'mok.sa' meaning
freedom with the prefix 'prat' which reverses its meaning when joined to it (cf. pratisrota,
pratigaami, pratikula, etc.). Praatimok.sa, an adjective, meaning
'opposed to freedom,' 'bound down,' when changed to a noun becomes Praatimok.sa
which in Paali takes the form 'paa.timokkha' meaning that which is 'binding upon'
and it is exactly in this sense that the code 'Paa.timokkha' is used.(39)
The Praatimok.sa contains the Bhik.su Praatimok.sa and the Bhik.su.nii
Praatimok.sa because it concerns both bhik.sus and bhik.su.niis. The Dharmaguptaka
vinaya, the Ssu fen lu, also contains the monastic rules for bhik.sus
and bhik.su.niis in the sections known as the Bhik.su Ssu fen lu and the Bhik.su.nii
Ssu fen lu. The Bhik.su.nii Ssu fen lu has seven categories of rules, while the
Bhik.su Ssu fen lu contains eight categories, adding the aniyata dharmas(undetermined
rules).(40) In order to make a complete comparative
analysis of the rules in each category in the Praatimok.sa, I will cover each
category of the rules chapter by chapter in turn: paaraajika dharmas(defeat), sa.mghaava"se.sa
dharmas(formal meeting), aniyata dharmas(undetermined), ni.hsargika-paayantika
dharmas(forfeiture), paayantika dharmas(expiation), pratide"saniiya
dharmas(confession), "saik.sa dharmas(training), and
adhikara.na-"samatha dharmas (legal questions).(41) Finally, I will explore the interpolation of the Eight Rules which are
mandated for bhik.su.niis only, by comparing the Eight Rules and the Bhik.su.nii
paayantika Rules.
PART I
Paaraajika Dharma(Defeat)
The categories of rules in the Ssu fen lu and the Paali vinaya are
arranged in order of the severity of the offenses. The most serious offenses against
monastic life are the paaraajika dharmas(Paali: paaraajika) for both bhik.su.niis
and bhik.sus. I. B. Horner explains the term paaraajika as follows:
Burnouf's idea (adopted by Childers and others) is that paaraajika is derived
from para + aj, meaning a crime which involves the expulsion or exclusion of
the guilty party. Para + aj may be a better source, grammatically speaking,
for paaraajika then is para-ji. Yet, that the sense intended is
"defeat," seems to me rather less doubtful than that it is expulsion, and aj,
though a Vedic root, meaning "to drive away," is unknown as a root in Paali.(42)
E. J. Thomas says that "Buddhaghosa interprets paaraajika as suffering
defeat, and the Muulasarvaastivaadins appear to do the same, but the earliest
commentary in the vinaya gives no suggestion of this meaning."(43)
In explaining the term paaraajika dharmas(Chinese: po luo yi fa) the Ssu
fen lu says that if a bhik.su [or bhik.su.nii] commits a paaraajika
offense, he [she] is compared with "a person whose head is cut off." The
offender totally loses his [her] monastic status and is no longer in association with the
pure bhik.su.niis or bhik.sus.(44)
In this category, we see that bhik.su.niis have four additional rules concerning
sexual behaviors. If a bhik.su is involved in a sexual offense in this category,
the bhik.su is required to leave the Bhik.su sa"ngha. In the same way,
if a bhik.su.nii has committed a sexual offense in this category, she is also
required to leave the Bhik.su.nii sa"ngha. However, the result of the bhik.su.nii's
sexual offense may lead to pregnancy because bhik.su.niis are potentially fertile.
For this reason, the four additional rules in this category are restricted rules to bhik.su.niis.
The paaraajika dharmas are as follows.
TABLE NO. 1
Paaraajika dharmas (Defeat)
(Emphasizing Rules for bhik.su.niis)
| Order of Rules for Bhik.su.niis |
Order of Same Rules for Bhik.sus(45) |
Summary of Rules for Bhik.su.niis(46) |
| 1 |
1 |
Not to have sexual intercourse |
| 2 |
2 |
Not to steal |
| 3 |
3 |
Not to kill a human or one who has human form of life |
| 4 |
4 |
Not to falsely claim to have attained superhuman
perfection |
| 5 |
|
Not to touch and rub a man who is filled with sexual
desire(47) |
| 6 |
|
Not to involve in the special eight actions(48) with a man who is filled with desire |
| 7 |
|
Not to condone or conceal another bhik.su.nii's
paaraajika offense |
| 8 |
|
Not to follow a bhik.su who is suspended by the sa"ngha
in spite of being admonished a third time(49) |
As table number one shows, bhik.su.niis and bhik.sus share the first four
paaraajika dharmas. There are four additional rules (#5, 6, 7, 8) for bhik.su.niis.
Violation of any one of the paaraajika dharmas has no possibility of rehabilitation
and entails permanent expulsion from the sa"ngha.(50) Two rules (#5, 6) of the additional rules for bhik.su.niis deal
with sexual offenses, number seven with concealing another bhik.su.nii's paaraajika
offense, and number eight with a bhik.su who is suspended by the sa"ngha.
Without having sufficient knowledge of the Buddhist view of women, some may think that the
four more rules were added because of women's unrestrained sexual desires. For example, a
Korean (male) Buddhist scholar, Jung-shup Han, comments on the Bhik.su.nii Paaraajika
additional rules:
We should understand the reasons why Gautama Buddha refused to found the Bhik.su.nii
sa"ngha and laid down four additional rules for bhik.su.niis than for bhik.sus
in this category. Because bhik.su.niis' sexual desires were lustful and
uncontrollable, they had sexual relations with Buddhist lay people, non-Buddhists or even bhik.sus.
Thus they created serious problems in the Buddhist community and caused the fall of the
pure dharma during the time of the Buddha.(51)
However, Richard F. Gombrich points out:
. . . [I]t is noteworthy that the Buddha did not hold the view, so widespread in
traditional India and elsewhere, that sexual desire is the women's fault and sexual
intercourse the result of female temptation of the male . . . . More substantial is his
sermon which describes sexual desire of men for women and of women for men in identical
terms.(52)
Gross also mentions:
Interestingly, though many modern commentators feel that one of the major concerns of
the monastic rules was to separate the monks and the nuns to protect celibacy, neither
monks or nuns are tempted by each other, with very few exceptions. The real struggle is
between monastics and lay people.(53)
Nagata Mizu additionally claims a practical reason for the two additional rules (#5, 6)
concerning sexual prohibition for bhik.su.niis. He notes that these rules prohibit bhik.su.niis
from physical contact with men at any time and in any situation because of the bhik.su.niis'
potential fertility, childbearing being contrary to monastic life.(54)
The Ssu fen lu does not elaborate on how the seventh paaraajika dharma
for bhik.su.niis came to be formulated.(55)
However, the Paali vinaya gives an historical account of how the rule was formed.
The bhik.su.nii Sundariinandaa was involved in sexual relations with the layman
Saa.lha, Migaara's grandson, and became pregnant. She was forced to leave the sa"ngha
after she could no longer conceal her condition. Her sister, Thullanandaa, concealed
Sundariinandaa's offense even though she knew that Sundariinandaa had committed a paaraajika
offense. So even though rule number seven of the paaraajika dharmas at first glance
seems to deal with the concealment of an offense, it also indicates a concern with sexual
matters between men and women.(56)
Although Gautama Buddha laid down the rules that bhik.su.niis should learn the dharma
from bhik.sus who were authorized by the Bhik.su sa"ngha,(57) he also established rule number eight to
protect bhik.su.niis from abuse by a man who was no longer a bhik.su. This
rule may be a relic of the early period of the Bhik.su.nii sa"ngha when some bhik.su.niis
were used by a bhik.su who had been expelled by the sa"ngha.(58) The additional rules for bhik.su.niis
in the paaraajika dharmas look varied, but the case histories establish them as
generally concerning sexual offenses. Rule number eight is one of the most important rules
of the monastic life for bhik.su.niis; however, violation of the rule is not an
offense until the third admonition. Chatsuman Kabilsingh comments on rule number eight:
It is interesting to note that the structure of paaraajika 8 stands out from the
rest. A bhik.su.nii is defeated only after the third admonition, the form resembles
that of sa.mghaava"se.sa more than paaraajika. Could it be possible
that it has been shifted from sa.mghaava"se.sa? If that was the case, then it
must have occurred at a very early period before the separation of the various sects, for
all of them share this rule.(59)
Nagata Mizu contends that if a bhik.su.nii is involved in sexual relations, she
is required to leave the Bhik.su.nii sa"ngha. Additionally, the result of the
offense can cause her pregnancy, and this can result in a serious external problem for the
Buddhist community as well as the individual. In contrast, if a bhik.su is involved
in sexual relations, the punishment of the offense could be inwardly limited only to the bhik.su.(60)
From a close examination of the comparative study of the paaraajika dharmas for bhik.su.niis
and bhik.sus, we see that the four additional paaraajika dharmas for bhik.su.niis
actually deal with sexual matters. It seems that Gautama Buddha put great emphasis on
providing stronger guards for the life of chastity for bhik.su.niis than for bhik.sus,
and strong guards against sexual behavior for bhik.su.niis because of their
potential fertility. As Nagata Mizu asserts, the results of sexual offenses of bhik.su.niis
can be greatly different from those of bhik.sus. The result of the sexual offense
of a bhik.su.nii is not simply settled by only leaving the sa"ngha
herself, because of her motherhood and childbearing.
PART II
Sa.mghaava"se.sa dharmas (Formal Meeting)
The second most serious group of monastic rules in the Praatimok.sa are the sa.mghaava"se.sa
dharmas(Paali: sa"nghadisesa). The meaning of the term sa.mghaava"se.sa
is also controversial among scholars. Kabilsingh explains that "[i]n some of the
Sanskrit texts the word occurs in the form sa.mghaava"se.sa, sa"nghadise.sa
would thus be an old Maghadhi form of sa"nghavasesa, a later Sanskrit
rendering of the original sa"ghadisesa."(61) Horner notes:
Like the meaning of paaraajika, the meaning of sa"nghadisesa [Skt. sa.mghaava"se.sa]
is controversial. Again B. C. Law and I follow vinaya Texts in rendering sa"nghadisesa
as offenses (or rules or matters) which require a formal meeting of the Order [sa"ngha].(62)
Sa.mghaava"se.sa dharmas translates into the Chinese as seng ts'an fa,
which means "remaining in the sa"ngha."(63) The Chinese Shih sung lu explains the term sa.mghaava"se.sa
as the offenses despite which one could still remain in the sa"ngha. When a bhik.su
[or bhik.su.nii] confesses to the sa"ngha his [or her] offense, he [or
she] can be expiated from the wrongdoing.(64) In
this category, we see that bhik.su.niis have four more rules than bhik.sus.
Even though there are four additional rules for bhik.su.niis in this category, the
punishment for violation of them shows a compassionate way for bhik.su.niis because
it requires three admonitions. As a result, the four additional rules for bhik.su.niis
provide more opportunities for bhik.su.niis for self-training in their alms life. Sa.mghaava"se.sa
dharmas are as follows.
TABLE NO. 2
Sa.mghaava"se.sa dharmas (Formal Meeting)
(Emphasizing Rules for bhik.su.niis)
| Order of Rules for Bhik.su.niis |
Order of Same Rules for Bhik.sus(65) |
Summary of Rules for Bhik.su.niis(66) |
| 1 |
5 |
Not to undertake an act of a go-between for a man and a woman |
| 2 |
8 |
Not to accuse an innocent bhik.su.nii of a groundless paaraajika
offense |
| 3 |
9 |
Not to accuse an innocent bhik.su.nii of a groundless paaraajika
offense out of anger or hostility toward her |
| 4 |
|
Not to sue as an accuser for damages |
| 5 |
|
Not to ordain a thief |
| 6 |
|
Not to restore a suspended bhik.su.nii to the sa"ngha |
| 7 |
|
Not to go to villages alone, cross to the other side of a river alone, go
away for a night alone, or stay behind a group of bhik.su.niis alone |
| 8 |
|
Not to accept food or clothes from a man who is filled with desire |
| 9 |
|
Not to persuade other bhik.su.niis to accept food from a man who
is filled with desire |
| 10 |
10 |
Not to cause a schism in a harmonious sa"ngha in spite of
being admonished a third time |
| 11 |
11 |
Not to support a schismatic bhik.su.nii in spite of being
admonished a third time |
| 12 |
12 |
Not to ignore a third admonition to leave a village after bringing
corruption to a family or village |
| 13 |
13 |
Not to break the regulations of the sa"ngha or ignore a third
admonition due to malice |
| 14 |
|
Not to get along with a bhik.su.nii who has committed offenses and
conceal each other's offense in spite of being admonished a third time |
| 15 |
|
Not to encourage other bhik.su.niis to get along with a bhik.su.nii
who has committed an offense and conceal one another's offenses in spite of being
admonished a third time |
| 16 |
|
Not to say that you will repudiate the Buddha, Dharma and the sa"ngha
out of anger or displeasure in spite of being admonished a third time |
| 17 |
|
Not to fight with a bhik.su.nii and bear malice to the bhik.su.nii
in spite of being admonished a third time |
TABLE NO. 3
Sa.mghaava"se.sa Dharmas for bhik.sus
(Emphasizing Rules for bhik.sus)
| Order of Rules for Bhik.sus |
Summary of Rules for Bhik.sus(67) |
| 1 |
Not to intentionally emit semen |
| 2 |
Not to engage with a woman in bodily contact or take her hand, take her
arm, touch her hair, touch one or another of her limbs |
| 3 |
Not to speak to a woman with wicked words concerned with unlawful sexual
intercourse |
| 4 |
Not to speak in front of women, in praise of sexual service of the body
with regard to himself |
| 6 |
Not to build a dwelling place in excessive measurements(68) without a donor |
| 7 |
Not to build a large residence with a donor on a site entailing harm (to
creatures) or with surroundings which are not conducive to roaming |
The seventeen rules for bhik.su.niis and thirteen rules for bhik.sus in
this category represent the second severe breach of the monastic discipline. Seven rules
(#1, 2, 3, 10, 11, 12, 13 for bhik.su.niis, #5, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13 for bhik.sus)
are common to bhik.su.niis and bhik.sus. Of the ten sa.mghaava"se.sa
dharmas which are different for bhik.su.niis and for bhik.sus, rule
number four for bhik.su.niis deals with behavior with lay people; rule five with
false ordination; rule six with restoring a suspended bhik.su.nii without
permission from the sa"ngha; rule seven is about those who go alone into the
village or cross the bank of the river, and spend a night alone; rules eight and nine are
related to safeguarding bhik.su.niis from the dangers of lustful men; rules
fourteen and fifteen forbid bhik.su.niis from concealing the offenses of others;
rule sixteen concerns the bhik.su.nii who shows disrespect to the Buddha, Dharma
and the sa"ngha; and rule seventeen deals with a quarrelsome bhik.su.nii.
Just as bhik.su.niis have rules which apply only to them in this category, bhik.sus
likewise have rules specific to their situations (Table No. 3). The six different rules
for bhik.sus in this category cover such matters: four rules (#1, 2, 3, 4) are
related to sex; and two (#6, 7) are concerned with the construction of a hut or a large
dwelling place. These rules, which are only for bhik.sus, also provide glimpses
into the lives of bhik.su.niis. For example, with regard to the two rules about
building dwelling place, Kabilsingh claims that, because these rules "are not shared
by the bhik.su.niis, it might be understood that usually the nuns are not
themselves in charge of construction."(69)
The first nine of the sa.mghaava"se.sa dharmas for bhik.su.niis and bhik.sus
become offenses at once when a bhik.su.nii or a bhik.su transgresses any of
these rules, whereas the final seven (#10-17) for bhik.su.niis and final four
(#10-13) for bhik.sus do not become offenses until a third admonition of bhik.su.niis
or bhik.sus is necessary. The offenses of the four additional rules (#14, 15, 16,
17) for bhik.su.niis in this category require three admonitions of the bhik.su.nii
involved.(70)
When a bhik.su commits any one of the sa.mghaava"se.sa offenses, he
is subjected to a period of parivaasa(71)
[Paali: parivaasa] for as many days as the offense is concealed. If a bhik.su
informs another bhik.su at once about his offense of the sa.mghaava"se.sa
dharma, he is required to undergo only a period of the six nights of the maanatva(72) [Paali: maanatta] in the Bhik.su
sa"ngha. However, if a bhik.su conceals his offense, first he must go
through a period of the parivaasa for as many days as it is concealed, and then a
further period called maanatva must also be spent in the Bhik.su sa"ngha.(73)
In contrast, when a bhik.su.nii has violated one of the sa.mghaava"se.sa
dharmas, she is required to undergo only the period of maanatva for a half
month in both Bhik.su and Bhik.su.nii Sa"nghas, no matter whether she
has concealed her offense for some period or not.(74)
bhik.su.niis are not required to do the parivaasa. However, bhik.su.niis
are subjected to a period of the maanatva in both sa"nghas for half a
month. She has to approach both Bhik.su and Bhik.su.nii Sa"nghas, and
beg for the period of the maanatva.(75)
The Paali Bhik.su.nii vinaya states that:
A nun having fallen into one or other of these shall spend a fortnight in maanatta
[Skt. maanatva] discipline before both Orders. If, when the nun has performed the maanatta
discipline, the Order of nuns should number twenty, then that nun may be rehabilitated.
But if the Order of nuns, numbering less than twenty even by one, should rehabilitate that
nun, that nun is not rehabilitated, and those nuns are blameworthy; this is the proper
course there.(76)
On the other hand, the Bhik.su.nii Ssu fen lu requires a larger sa"ngha
members stating that:
If a bhik.su.nii violates any one of the sa.mghaava"se.sa dharmas,
she must perform a period of the maanatva for one half month in both sa"nghas.
When the bhik.su.nii has performed the maanatva discipline, she must ask for
expiation of her offense in the presence of both sa"nghas of the twenty bhik.sus
and twenty bhik.su.niis. If there is less than forty even by one, she cannot be
rehabilitated, and those bhik.sus and bhik.su.niis (in both sa"nghas)
are blameworthy (for not having a required number to rehabilitate her).(77)
In comparing the two versions above, we note that they disagree in the required numbers
for bhik.su.niis and bhik.sus. The Paali vinaya requires only twenty bhik.su.niis
as a sufficient number for rehabilitation, but it does not specifically give the number
required for bhik.sus. However, the Chinese Ssu fen lu requires twenty bhik.sus
and twenty bhik.su.niis in each sa"ngha as a sufficient number for the
rehabilitation.(78) Perhaps during the long
history of translation of the vinaya, the additional sufficient numbers may have
been added to the Chinese Bhik.su.nii Ssu fen lu.
Taking a look at "performing the maanatva discipline before both sa"nghas
for bhik.su.niis," it might be thought that the Bhik.su.nii sa"ngha
subordinated its position to the Bhik.su sa"ngha and that bhik.su.niis
are subjected to a heavier penalty than bhik.sus for an offense of the sa.mghaava"se.sa
dharmas. However, Ian Astley argues:
Actually, although many parts of the vinaya reflect a very petty-minded way of
thinking which may be regarded as holding almost anything from monkeys to women in an
unfavorable light, the basic considerations behind this difference in the relative status
of the two orders should not be misconstrued. In those days (and this still applies to
much of present Indian society) a woman who had left the life of the household would
otherwise have been regarded more or less as a harlot and subjected to the appropriate
harassment. By being formally associated with the monks, the nuns were able to enjoy the
benefits of leaving the household life without incurring immediate harm. Whilst it is one
thing to abhor - as any civilized person must do - the attitudes and behavior towards
women which underlie the necessity for such protection, it is surely misplaced to
criticize the Buddha and his community for adopting this particular policy.(79)
I fully agree with Astley that the formal acts required for bhik.su.niis before
both sa"nghas, and some of the additional rules, were generated because of the
specific social and cultural context during the time of Gautama Buddha. In the vinaya
there are several examples of Brahmins who spoke of bhik.su.niis as "harlots
or whores." These stories provide a glimpse of bhik.su.niis in the midst of
the Brahmin social milieu during the time of Gautama Buddha. For example:
Now at that time several nuns, going to Saavatthii through the Kosalan districts,
having arrived at a certain village in the evening, having approached a certain Brahmin
family, asked for accommodation. Then that Brahmin woman spoke thus to these nuns:
"Wait, ladies, until the Brahmin comes." . . .
Then that Brahmin having come during the night, spoke thus to that Brahmin women:
"Who are these?"
"They are nuns, master."
Saying: "Throw out these shaven-headed strumpets," he threw them out from the
house.(80)
* * *
. . . . Then that man, defeated, looked down upon, criticized, spread it about, saying:
"These shaven-headed (women) are not (true) recluses, they are strumpets. How can
they have the store-room taken away from us?"(81)
* * *
. . . . Then that Brahmin . . . spread it about, saying:
"These shaven-headed strumpets are not true recluses. How can they let a pot fall on
my head? I will set fire to their dwelling," and having taken up a fire-brand, he
entered the dwelling.(82)
Within these social conditions, Gautama Buddha opened up new horizons for women by
founding the Bhik.su.nii sa"ngha. This social and spiritual advancement for
women was ahead of the times and, therefore, drew many objections from men, including bhik.sus.
He was probably well aware of the controversy that would be caused by the harassment of
his female disciples. In Buddhist history, the Bhik.su.nii sa"ngha was founded
five years later than the Bhik.su sa"ngha.(83) In the early stage of the Bhik.su.nii sa"ngha, bhik.su.niis
learned all forms of disciplinary acts and various aspects of knowledge from bhik.sus.
The Paali Cullavagga (The Less or Lesser Division of the vinaya)(84) shows how the Bhik.su sa"ngha was
modeled on the Bhik.su.nii sa"ngha.
Now at that time the Paa.timokkha was not recited to nuns. They told this matter
to the Lord. He said:
"I allow you, monks, to recite the Paa.timokkha to the nuns." . . .(85)
* * *
The nuns did not know to recite the Paa.timokkha. They told this matter to the
Lord. He said:
"I allow you, monks, to explain to the nuns through monks, saying:
'The Paa.timokkha should be recited thus.' "(86)
* * *
The nuns did not know how to confess offenses. They told this matter to the Lord. He
said:
"I allow you, monks, to explain to the nuns through monks, saying:
'An offense should be confessed thus.' "(87)
* * *
The nuns did not know how to acknowledge offenses. They told this matter to the Lord.
He said:
"I allow you, monks, to explain to the nuns through monks, saying:
'An offense should be acknowledged thus.' "(88)
* * *
Nuns did not know (formal) acts should be carried out. They told this matter to the
Lord. He said:
"I allow you, monks, to explain to the nuns through monks, saying:
'A (formal) act should be carried out thus.' "(89)
As I have discussed, the performance of the formal acts for bhik.su.niis before
both sa"nghas provided a close tie between the two sa"nghas. By
legitimately associating with the Bhik.su sa"ngha, the Bhik.su.nii
sa"ngha had benefits and protection from outside harm in ancient India. When we
especially consider the cultural context of ancient India, the formal acts before both sa"nghas
might have been necessary for the Bhik.su.nii sa"ngha. As I have already
mentioned, the four additional rules for bhik.su.niis (#14, 15, 16, 17) in this
category belong to the last eight rules which require three admonitions before punishment.
This requirement of three admonitions for the offenses of the four additional rules for bhik.su.niis,
I believe, provides more opportunities for bhik.su.niis to develop their religious
lives without overly strict punishment. These also encourage bhik.su.niis to expand
their self-cultivation with the three admonitions, adding a compassionately accommodating
limit to behavior.
PART III
Aniyata dharmas (Undetermined)
The third category of the rules for bhik.sus is the aniyata dharmas(Paali:
aniyataa) which do not exist in the Bhik.su.nii Praatimok.sa. Aniyata
has been defined as "[s]ince the nature of the offense is uncertain, this section of
the Paa.timokkha is called aniyata dharma, that is, 'to be decided.' "(90) Charles S. Prebish says that "[t]his
category of offenses is referred to as "undetermined offenses."(91) Aniyata dharmas translates into Chinese
as pu ting fa,(92) which means indefinite
or undetermined. In this category, the two rules for bhik.sus show an astonishing
degree of trust in women to testify against a bhik.su who has committed one of the aniyata
dharmas. Aniyata dharmas are as follows.
TABLE NO. 4
Aniyata Dharmas for only bhik.sus (Undetermined)
| Order of Rules for Bhik.sus |
Summary of Rules(93) |
| 1 |
Not to sit down with a woman in a secret place, a concealed seat suitable
for having sexual relations with her |
| 2 |
Not to sit down with a woman in an open place or on a concealed seat
unsuitable for having sexual relations |
My discussion of these two rules for bhik.sus may seem irrelevant. However, they
contain a Buddhist view of women. As Prebish points out, "[t]he two [aniyata]
offenses in this category reflect an outstanding and somewhat surprising degree of trust
in the female lay follower."(94) If a bhik.su
has taken a seat together with a woman in a secret place which is convenient for sexual
relations or in an open place unsuitable for lustful desires, he may be charged with one
of the offenses of the paaraajika, sa.mghaava"se.sa or paayantika
dharmas. The punishment may vary from the paaraajika to the paayantika
according to the eyewitness testimony of a female lay follower, based on her personal
word.(95) It is noteworthy that the word of a
woman was held in such high regard, and certainly unusual given the general low status of
women at the time the rules were formulated. In the penalties for the offenses of the aniyata
dharmas for bhik.sus, these two rules put a considerable trust in women, even
though the aniyata dharmas are not applicable to bhik.su.niis. Horner notes:
These two Aniyata rules indicate the respect and deference that was, at that
time, paid to women. They were not scornfully brushed aside as idle gossips and frivolous
chatter-boxes, but their words were taken seriously.(96)
PART IV
Ni.hsargika-paayantika dharmas (Forfeiture)
The ni.hsargika-paayantika dharmas(Paali: nissaggiya paacittiya) are
particularly concerned with conduct concerning material possessions. They follow the sa.mghaava"se.sa
dharmas in the Bhik.su.nii Praatimok.sa, while they follow the aniyata
dharmas as the fourth category in the Bhik.su Praatimok.sa.
From internal evidence, paacittiya [Skt. paayantika ] is a (minor)
offense to be confessed, aapatti desetabbaa[Skt. aapatti desayitavya], a
statement common to all the Nissaggiyas. But etymologically the word paacittiya
has nothing to do with confession. I have therefore kept to the more literal translation,
and have rendered it "offense of expiation" throughout, and the two words nissaggiya
paacittiya as "offense of expiation involving forfeiture."(97)
The term ni.hsargika-paayantika dharmas translates into the Chinese as she to
fa.(98) In the Chinese she means to
abandon, while the Chinese to means to fall. The Sanskrit term paayantika in
the Chinese refers to roasting, boiling and falling. If a bhik.su [or bhik.su.nii]
commits an offense of the ni.hsargika-paayantika dharmas, it is believed that he
[or she] will fall into hell and suffer by being boiled and roasted.(99) Even though there are the same numbers of the rules both for bhik.su.niis
and bhik.sus in this category, some rules for bhik.sus do not allow them to
demand from bhik.su.niis feminine tasks which would interfere with the bhik.su.niis'
own religious pursuits. The ni.hsargika-paayantika dharmas are as follows.
TABLE NO. 5
Ni.hsargika-paayantika dharmas (Forfeiture)
(Emphasizing Rules for bhik.su.niis)
| Order of Rules for Bhik.su.niis |
Order of Same or Similar Rules for Bhik.sus(100) |
Summary of Rules for Bhik.su.niis(101) |
| 1 |
1 |
Not to lay aside an extra robe more than ten days |
| 2 |
2 |
Not to spend over a night without the five robes(102) |
| 3 |
3 |
Not to lay aside robe material for more than one month |
| 4 |
6 |
Not to ask for a robe from an unrelated householder except at the right
time(103) |
| 5 |
7 |
Not to accept extra robes when the robes have been lost, stolen, burned
or washed away |
| 6 |
8 |
Not to ask for a better robe from a householder out of desire for a fine
robe |
| 7 |
9 |
Not to ask for one fine robe instead of two robes offered by two
householders |
| 8 |
10 |
Not to request from a steward more than six times in order to obtain a
robe |
| 9 |
18 |
Not to accept or cause to be picked up gold and silver for bhik.su.niis
own use |
| 10 |
19 |
Not to engage in buying and selling |
| 11 |
20 |
Not to engage in activities in various kinds of buying and selling |
| 12 |
22 |
Not to get a new bowl when an old bowl has been repaired in less than
five places |
| 13 |
23 |
Not to beg yarn to make a robe woven by an unrelated weaver |
| 14 |
24 |
Not to ask a weaver to make a well-woven robe |
| 15 |
25 |
Not to take back or cause to snatch away a robe given to another out of
anger, malice, or ill-temper |
| 16 |
26 |
Not to lay aside medicine for more than seven days |
| 17 |
28 |
Not to accept a special robe ten days before the ka.thina(104) full moon |
| 18 |
30 |
Not to appropriate to yourself benefits belonging to the sa"ngha |
| 19 |
|
Not to ask for this, and then ask for that |
| 20 |
|
Not to spend the observance hall fund on another fund |
| 21 |
|
Not to spend the food fund on the robe fund |
| 22 |
|
Not to spend the bed fund on the robe fund |
| 23 |
|
Not to spend the housing fund of the sa"ngha on the robe fund |
| 24 |
21 |
Not to store extra bowls |
| 25 |
|
Not to store fine appliances |
| 26 |
|
Not to break a promise to lend periodical cloth to another bhik.su.nii |
| 27 |
|
Not to accept robe material at the wrong time for making of the robe at
the right time |
| 28 |
|
Not to take back a robe already exchanged for another, out of anger |
| 29 |
|
Not to ask for an expensive heavy robe(105) |
| 30 |
|
Not to ask for an expensive light and thin robe |
The ni.hsargika-paayantika dharmas contain thirty rules for both bhik.su.niis
and bhik.sus. However, the contents of some rules differ. Nineteen rules for bhik.su.niis
have been taken from the rules for bhik.sus, while the remaining eleven rules for bhik.su.niis
are different from those for bhik.sus. The ni.hsargika-paayantika dharmas
for bhik.su.niis and bhik.sus cover such topics as robes, bowls, medicine,
money, funds, etc. Violation of any of the ni.hsargika-paayantika dharmas requires
a bhik.su.nii or a bhik.su to abandon those robes or bowls, etc., and then
to formally confess the offense in the presence of the Bhik.su.nii sa"ngha or
the Bhik.su sa"ngha, providing that the sa"ngha not be less than
five members.(106) Therefore, the
transgression of the ni.hsargika-paayantika dharmas does not require any
punishment, per se, only confession.(107)
The ni.hsargika-paayantika dharmas for bhik.su.niis are comprised of
seventeen rules (#1-8, 13-15, 17, 26-30) dealing with robes; three (#9, 10, 11) with gold
and silver, and buying and selling; three (#12, 24, 25) with bowls; one (#16) with
medicine; two (#18, 19) with appropriating sa"ngha property and asking for
food; and four (#20, 21, 22, 23) with misuse of funds. In contrast, the ni.hsargika-paayantika
dharmas for bhik.sus which are different from those for bhik.su.niis
number eleven, as follows.
TABLE NO. 6
Ni.hsargika-paayantika Dharmas for bhik.sus
(Emphasizing Rules for bhik.sus)
| Order of Rules for Bhik.sus |
Summary of Rules for Bhik.sus(108) |
| 4 |
Not to accept a robe from an unrelated bhik.su.nii unless it is in
exchange |
| 5 |
Not to call upon an unrelated bhik.su.nii for an old robe to be
washed, dyed, or beaten |
| 11 |
Not to have a new rug made of silk |
| 12 |
Not to have a new rug made of pure black sheep's wool |
| 13 |
Not to have a new rug made of pure white sheep's wool |
| 14 |
Not to have another new rug within six years |
| 15 |
Not to make a new sitting rug without using pieces from the old sitting
rug to disfigure the new rug on all sides |
| 16 |
Not to carry sheep's wool on the road more than three yojanas(109) |
| 17 |
Not to call upon an unrelated bhik.su.nii for sheep's wool to be
washed, dyed, or combed |
| 27 |
Not to get a rain-cloth robe earlier than a month (from the hot season),
or wear it earlier than half a month (from the hot season) |
| 29 |
Bhik.sus may stay away one or another robe of the three robes for
six nights at the most in fearful, dangerous, or doubtful situations |
Six of the rules for bhik.sus above (#11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16) deal with the use
and making of various types of rugs; two of the rules (#27, 29) deal with robes. Three
rules (#4, 5, 17) actually prevent bhik.sus from taking advantage of bhik.su.niis.
This is clearly shown in rule number seventeen for bhik.sus, which is illustrated
in the following story given in the Bhik.su-vibha.ngha:
At that time the group of six monks had sheep's wool washed and dyed and combed by
nuns. The nuns, through washing, dyeing, combing the sheep's wool, neglected the
exposition, the interrogation, the higher morality, the higher thought, the higher
insight. . . .
"Gotamii, I hope that the nuns are zealous, ardent,(with) a self that is
striving?"
"Where, lord, is there zeal in the nuns? The masters, the group of six monks, have
sheep's wool washed and dyed and combed by nuns. The nuns . . . neglect the exposition,
the interrogation, the higher morality, the higher thought, the higher insight." . .
.
"Foolish men, those who are not relations do not know what is suitable or what is
unsuitable, or what is pleasant or what is unpleasant to those who are not relations. Thus
you, foolish men, will have sheep's wool washed and dyed and combed by nuns who are not
relations? It is not, foolish men, for pleasing those who are not (yet) pleased. . . . And
thus, monks, this rule of training should be set forth."(110)
Horner also points out:
Besides the giving of robes, the washing of robes also became subject to various
regulations. It was said that robes were not to be washed (by the almswomen [bhik.su.niis]
for the almsmen [bhik.sus]) unless they were related; old garments were not to be
washed, dyed or beaten by the almswomen for the almsmen, unless they were related.(111)
In comparing the ni.hsargika-paayantika dharmas for bhik.su.niis and bhik.sus,
we see that some rules for bhik.sus forbid them from taking advantage of bhik.su.niis.
Thus freed from abuse, bhik.su.niis can put more attention into their spiritual
practice. Gross notes:
Furthermore, the monastic code protected nuns from demanding monks who might ask nuns
to do housework for the monks or to give them food and clothing - feminine tasks in the
renounced world. Such rulings are remarkably considerate and recognize that women renounce
the world for their own religious pursuits, which should not be undermined by the demands
of men used to female service.(112)
PART V
Paayantika dharmas (Expiation)
The paayantika or patayantika dharmas translates into the Chinese tan
t'i fa,(113) or tan to fa.(114) They are even less severe than the
previous categories for bhik.su.niis and bhik.sus, and cover a wide a range
of topics. There are one hundred seventy-eight rules for bhik.su.niis and ninety
rules for bhik.sus in this particular category. Horner explains:
A curious feature of the Paacittiyas is that the Old Commentary on the rules
nowhere explains what is meant by paacittiya, the offense which gives its name to
this whole section. It is from the phrase aapatti desetabbaa, occurring in the Vibha"nga
on each Nissaggiya, that we infer that paacittiya is an offense to be
confessed; and even as forfeiture and confession are to be made to an Order or to a group
or to an individual, so we may conclude that the same holds good when the offense is one
whose penalty is merely that of expiation, of confession unaccompanied by forfeiture.(115)
While paayantika [Paali: paacittiya] is a transgression which causes the
breaking down of ku"sala-karma (good acts), nevertheless, it is an aapatti
(offense), which one merely needs to be mindful of.(116) This category includes a great difference in the number of rules for bhik.su.niis
from those for bhik.sus. The purpose of these rules, which is mainly based on the
historical realities of the daily life of bhik.su.niis, is to encourage bhik.su.niis
to be mindful of speech, behavior, and the regulations of the sa"ngha, etc.
Wijayaratna points out "[t]he paacittiyas [Skt. paayantikas] deal with
offenses requiring only confession."(117)
When a bhik.su.nii or a bhik.su violates one of the paayantika dharmas,
the offender is required to confess to another bhik.su.nii or bhik.su, or a
group or the sa"ngha.(118)
paayantika dharmas are as follows.
TABLE NO. 7
Paayantika dharmas (Expiation)
(Emphasizing Rules for bhik.su.niis)
| Order of Rules for Bhik.su.niis |
Order of Same Or Similar Rules for Bhik.sus(119) |
Summary of Rules for Bhik.su.niis(120) |
| 1 |
1 |
Not to speak a conscious lie |
| 2 |
2 |
Not to use insulting speech |
| 3 |
3 |
Not to alienate members of the sa"ngha |
| 4 |
4 |
Not to stay with a man in a room for a night |
| 5 |
5 |
Not to stay with a woman in a room for more than two or three nights |
| 6 |
6 |
Not to recite the suutras with one who is not ordained(121) |
| 7 |
7 |
Not to speak of a grave offense of a bhik.su.nii to an unordained
person |
| 8 |
8 |
Not to lie about her superhuman faculties to an unordained person in
begging for alms food |
| 9 |
9 |
Not to teach more than five or six sentences of Dharma to a man
unless there is a wise woman also present |
| 10 |
10 |
Not to dig the ground |
| 11 |
11 |
Not to cut down trees |
| 12 |
12 |
Not to vex or abuse the sa"ngha |
| 13 |
13 |
Not to slander or rebuke a bhik.su.nii who is assigned to a
particular job in the sa"ngha |
| 14 |
14 |
Not to spread out a cushion, a couch, a chair or a pillow in an open
place belonging to the sa"ngha |
| 15 |
15 |
Not to spread out a cushion, a couch, a chair or a pillow in a private
place belonging to the sa"ngha |
| 16 |
16 |
Not to lie down in a sleeping place or dwelling place belonging to a bhik.su.nii |
| 17 |
17 |
Not to throw out or cause a bhik.su.nii to be thrown out of a
dwelling place in the sa"ngha |
| 18 |
18 |
Not to sit down or lie down on a couch or a chair with weak legs |
| 19 |
19 |
Not to use water that might have living things in it |
| 20 |
20 |
Not to cover the roof of a large dwelling place with more than two or
three layers |
| 21 |
31 |
Not to eat alms food at a public rest house more than once, except in
case of illness |
| 22 |
33 |
Not to eat a group meal, except at a right time(122) |
| 23 |
34 |
Not to accept more than three bowls of alms food |
| 24 |
37 |
Not to eat a meal at the wrong time(123) |
| 25 |
38 |
Not to eat a meal that has been laid aside |
| 26 |
39 |
Not to put food that is not given into the mouth, except for water or a
tooth pick |
| 27 |
42 |
Not to break a promise of food to one who is asking for alms food |
| 28 |
43 |
Not to sit down in a lay person's house with a wife and husband after
alms food |
| 29 |
44 |
Not to sit down in a private place with a couple |
| 30 |
45 |
Not to sit down in a private place with a man |
| 31 |
46 |
Not to break a promise to share alms (food) with a bhik.su.nii who
accompanies one an alms tour |
| 32 |
47 |
Not to accept medicines for longer than four months |
| 33 |
48 |
Not to go to see an army fighting unless there is sufficient reason for
it |
| 34 |
49 |
Not to stay with the army for more than three nights |
| 35 |
50 |
Not to stay amongst an army to enjoy the battle |
| 36 |
51 |
Not to drink alcohol |
| 37 |
52 |
Not to play in the water |
| 38 |
53 |
Not to make a bhik.su.nii laugh by tickling with the fingers |
| 39 |
54 |
Not to ignore another bhik.su.nii's admonition |
| 40 |
55 |
Not to frighten or cause a bhik.su.nii to be frightened |
| 41 |
56 |
Not to bathe more than half monthly, except at a right time(124) |
| 42 |
57 |
Not to make a fire in an open place |
| 43 |
58 |
Not to hide or cause to be hidden a bowl or a robe belonging to a bhik.su.nii,
even for fun |
| 44 |
59 |
Not to take back a robe given to a bhik.su.nii without asking her
for permission |
| 45 |
60 |
Not to wear a new robe with its original color unless the new robe is
discolored with a mixture of the three colors: blue, black and dark purple(125) |
| 46 |
61 |
Not to intentionally deprive any living thing of life |
| 47 |
62 |
Not to intentionally drink water which contains living things |
| 48 |
63 |
Not to intentionally give a cause for remorse to a bhik.su.nii,
even for a moment |
| 49 |
65 |
Not to intentionally conceal a grave offense committed habitually by a bhik.su.nii |
| 50 |
66 |
Not to cause quarreling, bickering, or fighting |
| 51 |
67 |
Not to intentionally go with a thief along the same road |
| 52 |
68 |
Not to ignore the admonition of a bhik.su.nii because of her own
wrong view |
| 53 |
69 |
Not to eat, talk, or lie down with a bhik.su.nii who is suspended
by the sa"ngha |
| 54 |
70 |
Not to protect a "siik.samaa.na(126) (probationer) who is suspended by the sa"ngha |
| 55 |
71 |
Not to ignore an experienced bhik.su.nii's advice about
learning the rules for training |
| 56 |
72 |
Not to disparage the rules for training |
| 57 |
73 |
Listen carefully to the recitation of the Praatimok.sa |
| 58 |
74 |
Not to engage in criticism after consenting to a legitimate act |
| 59 |
75 |
Not to leave the seat without asking a competent bhik.su.nii for
permission when the sa"ngha is engaged in pious philosophical discussion |
| 60 |
76 |
Not to criticize another's decision after granting someone the power to
make a decision |
| 61 |
77 |
Not to overhear while bhik.su.niis are quarreling, disputing, or
engaging in contention |
| 62 |
78 |
Not to hit a bhik.su.nii because of anger or displeasure |
| 63 |
79 |
Not to raise a hand at a bhik.su.nii because of anger or
displeasure |
| 64 |
80 |
Not to accuse a bhik.su.nii of a groundless sa.mghaava"se.sa
offense |
| 65 |
81 |
Not to cross the threshold, or vicinity of the threshold, of the palace
in the early morning without permission of a competent bhik.su.nii |
| 66 |
82 |
Not to pick up a jewel with the bhik.su.nii's own hands, or even
ask others to do it |
| 67 |
83 |
Not to enter a village at the wrong time without asking a competent bhik.su.nii
for permission, except for sufficient reasons |
| 68 |
84 |
Not to make the legs of a chair larger than the eight finger breadth |
| 69 |
85 |
Not to sit down or lie down on a chair or couch covered with cotton |
| 70 |
|
Not to eat garlic |
| 71 |
|
Not to cut the hair of the private parts of the body |
| 72 |
|
Not to put a finger into the vagina more than the length of two finger
joints when you take a douche |
| 73 |
|
Not to make a male sexual organ out of any material |
| 74 |
|
Not to slap each other on the private parts |
| 75 |
|
Not to wait on a bhik.su with drinking water or a fan while he is
eating a meal |
| 76 |
|
Not to ask lay people for grains |
| 77 |
|
Not to throw out excrement or urine on the living grass |
| 78 |
|
Not to throw out excrement or urine over a wall or a fence |
| 79 |
|
Not to go to see dancing, singing, or playing music |
| 80 |
|
Not to stand or talk with a man in a secluded place |
| 81 |
|
Not to enter into a secluded place with a man |
| 82 |
|
Not to whisper into a man's ear in a secluded place |
| 83 |
|
Not to leave a lay person's house without asking the owner for permission |
| 84 |
|
Not to sit down in a lay person's house without asking the owner for
permission |
| 85 |
|
Not to lie down on a seat in a lay person's house without asking the
owner for permission |
| 86 |
|
Not to enter into a dark room with a man |
| 87 |
|
Not to deliver the teacher's message misleadingly |
| 88 |
|
Not to curse herself or others |
| 89 |
|
Not to beat the chest while weeping after quarreling |
| 90 |
|
Not to share a bed with anybody, except in case of illness |
| 91 |
|
Not to share a blanket |
| 92 |
|
Not to intentionally cause discomfort to a bhik.su.nii by asking a
tricky question |
| 93 |
|
Not to neglect a sick bhik.su.nii who has been living together |
| 94 |
|
Not to drive out a bhik.su.nii because of anger or displeasure |
| 95 |
|
Not to walk on alms tour during the rainy season retreat(127) |
| 96 |
|
Not to stay at the place of retreat after having the rainy season retreat |
| 97 |
|
Not to walk on borderlines which are dangerous and frightening |
| 98 |
|
Not to walk in dangerous and frightening regions even within the
borderline |
| 99 |
|
Not to take company in lay people or their sons |
| 100 |
|
Not to go to see a king's pleasure house, an art gallery, a park, or a
lotus pond |
| 101 |
|
Not to bathe naked at the river or lake |
| 102 |
similar to 89 |
Not to make bathing clothes that are not of a proper measure(128) |
| 103 |
|
Not to break a promise to sew a bhik.su.nii's robe, or at least
make an effort to do it |
| 104 |
|
Not to let five days pass without looking after the outer robe |
| 105 |
|
Not to individually appropriate benefits which belong to the sa"ngha |
| 106 |
|
Not to put on a bhik.su.nii's robe without asking her for
permission |
| 107 |
|
Not to give the bhik.su.nii's robes to a lay person, a wanderer,
or a female wanderer |
| 108 |
|
Not to hold back the sa"ngha from making a division of robe
materials when it is legally allowed to do so |
| 109 |
|
Not to hold back a legally valid removal of the ka.thina from the
sa"ngha |
| 110 |
|
Not to hold back a legally valid removal of the ka.thina from a bhik.su.nii |
| 111 |
|
Promote peace between two fighting bhik.su.niis |
| 112 |
|
Not to give food to a lay person or a wanderer with bhik.su.niis own
hands |
| 113 |
|
Not to work for lay people like a house wife |
| 114 |
|
Not to spin yarn |
| 115 |
|
Not to sit down or lie down on lay people's seats |
| 116 |
|
Not to leave a lay person's house without asking the owner for permission
after staying over a night |
| 117 |
|
Not to learn and recite an incantation to householders |
| 118 |
|
Not to teach an incantation to householders |
| 119 |
|
Not to ordain a pregnant woman |
| 120 |
|
Not to ordain a woman who has left her baby at home |
| 121 |
65 |
Not to ordain a woman who is not twenty years old |
| 122 |
|
Not to ordain a "siik.samaa.na who has not trained for two
years even if she is twenty years old |
| 123 |
|
Not to ordain a "siik.samaa.na who has not trained for two
years in the six rules(129) even if
she is twenty years old |
| 124 |
|
Not to ordain a "siik.samaa.na who has trained for two years
in the six rules, but who is not agreed upon by the sa"ngha |
| 125 |
|
Not to ordain a married woman who is less than twelve years old |
| 126 |
|
Not to ordain a "siik.samaa.na married for full twelve years
and who has trained for two years in the six rules, but who is not agreed upon by the sa"ngha |
| 127 |
|
Not to ordain a lewd woman |
| 128 |
|
Be responsible for the disciples for two years as a preceptor while they
are training |
| 129 |
|
Learn from the preceptor for two years as an ordained bhik.su.nii |
| 130 |
|
Not to become a preceptor without authorization by the sa"ngha |
| 131 |
|
Not to become a preceptor if she has not been a bhik.su.nii for
twelve years |
| 132 |
|
Not to become a preceptor, even if she has been a bhik.su.nii for
twelve years, if she is not approved by the sa"ngha |
| 133 |
|
Not to complain when she is not approved by the sa"ngha to
become a preceptor |
| 134 |
|
Not to ordain a "siik.samaa.na without the consent of her
parents and husband |
| 135 |
|
Not to ordain a "siik.samaa.na who is grieving over love |
| 136 |
|
Not to break the promise to ordain a "siik.samaa.na after
training her to be ordained |
| 137 |
|
Not to promise to ordain a "siik.samaa.na after accepting
fabric for a robe |
| 138 |
|
Not to ordain two "siik.samaa.nas in the same year as a
preceptor |
| 139 |
|
Not to let a day pass to be approved by the Bhik.su Sa"ngha
after ordination of bhik.su.niis |
| 140 |
|
Not to miss the exhortation or the preaching of Dharma from the Bhik.su
Sa"ngha except in case of illness |
| 141 |
|
Not to miss Observance Day(130)
and exhortation in every half month |
| 142 |
|
After the rainy season retreat, bhik.su.niis should participate in
the special meeting of both sa"nghas to discuss these three matters: what was
seen, heard, or suspected |
| 143 |
|
Not to spend the rainy season retreat at a residence where there are no
signs of bhik.sus |
| 144 |
|
Not to enter a bhik.su monastery without asking bhik.sus
for permission |
| 145 |
|
Not to revile or abuse a bhik.su |
| 146 |
|
Not to revile a bhik.su.nii because of anger or displeasure |
| 147 |
|
Not to let a man squeeze an ulcer |
| 148 |
|
Not to eat again after eating |
| 149 |
|
Not to be jealous of lay followers |
| 150 |
|
Not to spray perfume on the body |
| 151 |
|
Not to rub with perilla oil |
| 152 |
|
Not to be rubbed or massaged by a bhik.su.nii with perilla oil |
| 153 |
|
Not to let the body be rubbed or massaged by a "siik.samaa.na |
| 154 |
|
Not to let the body be rubbed or massaged by a "sraama.nerii(131) (female novice) |
| 155 |
|
Not to let the body be rubbed or massaged by a woman |
| 156 |
|
Not to wear a petticoat |
| 157 |
|
Not to have women's ornaments |
| 158 |
|
Not to wear a sunshade or sandals, except in case of illness |
| 159 |
|
Not to go in a vehicle, except in case of illness |
| 160 |
|
Not to enter a village without wearing a vest |
| 161 |
|
Not to enter a lay person's house without invitation |
| 162 |
|
Not to leave the monastery after sunset, leaving the door open wide
without telling a bhik.su.nii |
| 163 |
|
Not to leave the monastery after sunset, leaving the door open wide
without telling anyone |
| 164 |
|
Observe the rainy season retreats which come twice a year, except in case
of illness |
| 165 |
|
Not to ordain an idiot(132)
|
| 166 |
|
Not to ordain a hermaphrodite |
| 167 |
|
Not to ordain a woman who does not have two distinct exits for bodily
waste |
| 168 |
|
Not to ordain a woman who is a debtor or has serious illness |
| 169 |
|
Not to live with worldly knowledge |
| 170 |
|
Not to teach worldly knowledge to lay people |
| 171 |
|
Not to stay at the monastery after getting driven out by the sa"ngha |
| 172 |
|
Not to suddenly ask a question to a bhik.su without his permission |
| 173 |
|
Not to disturb a bhik.su.nii who has lived at the monastery
previously |
| 174 |
|
Not to build a bhik.su.nii's pagoda at the bhik.su
monastery |
| 175 |
|
Greet respectfully and do proper homage to a bhik.su ordained that
very day even though a bhik.su.nii has been ordained for a hundred years |
| 176 |
|
Not to prance around with a haughty attitude |
| 177 |
|
Not to wear ornaments like a lady |
| 178 |
|
Not to let a female wanderer rub or spray the body with perfume |
As we see in the table number seven, seventy-one rules for bhik.su.niis are
shared with bhik.sus. The rules in this category are extremely divergent in their
contents and may appear somewhat arbitrary; however; an examination of the contents of the
rules yields several major groups. In order to closely examine the wide range of the rules
embracing various aspects of bhik.su.niis' lives, the paayantika dharmas for
bhik.su.niis may roughly be classified as pertaining to the following groups:
TABLE NO. 8
An Overview of the Paayantika Dharmas(133)
| Classification of Offense |
Numbers of Rules Concerning this
Category of Offense |
Total of Rules Concerning this Category |
Rules for Bhik.suniis Only |
| Ordination |
119,120,121,122,123,124,125,126,
127,134,135,165,166,167, 168 |
15 |
14 |
| Clothes |
44,45,102,103,104,105,
106,107, 108,109,110,114, 156,160 |
14 |
12 |
| Ornament and skin care |
71,150,151,152,153,154,
155,157,158,177,178 |
11 |
11 |
| Qualifications and responsibilities of a preceptor |
128,130,131,132,133,136,137,138 |
9 |
9 |
| Actions around men |
9,30,80,81,82,86,147 |
7 |
6 |
| Playful conduct |
37,38,43,48,73,74,77,78,79 |
9 |
6 |
| Public conduct |
83,84,85,99,161,176 |
6 |
6 |
| Exhortation on Observance Day and the rainy season retreat |
140,141,142,143,164 |
5 |
5 |
| Travel |
51,67,95,96,97,98,159 |
7 |
5 |
| Etiquette with bhik.sus |
75,144,145,172 |
4 |
4 |
| Food |
21,22,23,24,25,26,
27,31,76,112,148 |
11 |
3 |
| Passionate quarreling |
17,40,61,62,63,64,94,146 |
8 |
2 |
| Cursing |
88,89 |
2 |
2 |
| Sharing a bed or blanket |
90,91 |
2 |
| Bathing |
41,72,101 |
3 |
| Incantation |
117,118 |
2 |
| Worldly knowledge |
169,170 |
2 |
| Closing the gate of the monastery |
162,163 |
2 |
| Dispute or discord |
1,2,3,7,12,13,39,50,111 |
9 |
| Sleeping in the same room with lay people |
4,5,116 |
3 |
| Dwelling place and lodging |
10,11,16,19,20,173 |
6 |
| Etiquette in home of married couple |
28,29,161 |
3 |
| Etiquette for asking questions |
92 |
1 |
| Mindful conveying of messages |
87 |
1 |
| Caring for a sick bhik.su.nii |
93 |
1 |
| Transgression of the regulations of the community |
59,60,171 |
3 |
| Visiting the palace |
65,100 |
2 |
| Garlic |
70 |
1 |
| Working for lay people |
113 |
1 |
| Envy |
149 |
1 |
| Education by the preceptor |
129 |
1 |
| Usage of a bed or a chair |
14,15,115 |
3 |
| Usage of a couch or a mattress |
18,68,69 |
3 |
| Visiting armed forces |
33,34,35 |
3 |
| Alcohol consumption |
36 |
1 |
| Fire building |
42 |
1 |
| Harming of any organisms |
46,47 |
2 |
| Concealing of another's offense |
49 |
1 |
| False opinion |
52,53,54,55,56,57,58 |
7 |
| Handling of jewelry |
66 |
1 |
| Making false claims |
8 |
1 |
| Recitation of suutras with lay people |
6 |
1 |
| Medicine |
32 |
1 |
(I did not include in the above classification rules 139, 174 and 175 because they will
be discussed in detail later.)
An overview of the paayantika dharmas reveals that the additional rules for bhik.su.niis
concern ordination, clothes, ornament and skin care, the qualifications and
responsibilities of a preceptor, actions around men, playfulness and public conduct,
exhortation on Observance Day and the rainy season retreat, traveling and etiquette with bhik.sus,
etc. Nagata Mizu notes that many of the additional rules for bhik.su.niis in this
category are historically related to bhik.su.niis' dwelling places during the time
of Gautama Buddha. At that time, bhik.su.niis lived mainly in towns or villages,
while bhik.sus could live either in towns or forests.(134) After a young bhik.su.nii was seduced by a man, in the Paali Cullavagga
(The Less or Lesser Division of the vinaya), Gautama Buddha forbade bhik.su.niis
to live in forests:
Now at that time nuns were staying in a forest; men of abandoned life seduced them.
They told this matter to the Lord. He said:
"Monks, nuns should not stay in a forest. Whoever should stay (in one) there is an
offense of wrongdoing."(135)
Susan Murcott tells another story:
One of the many men who desired Uppalavanna was a cousin of hers, a young man
Ananda.(He should not be confused with Gautama's cousin and attendant by the same name.)
Ananda did not want Uppalavanna to renounce the world. Sometime during the first years
following Uppalavanna's ordination, Ananda found out that she lived alone in a hut in
Andhavana. One day while she was out, Ananda hid himself under her bed. When she returned
and lay down on her bed, he suddenly jumped out and raped her. . . . Because of this
incident, Buddhist nuns from that time to the present have been forbidden to go out alone
or to live as hermits in the woods.(136)
* * *
Later, rules prohibiting nuns' independent wandering were formulated. However, it was
more usual for nuns (and, for that matter, monks) to form into communities in or on the
outskirts of villages.(137)
* * *
The stories given in the Bhik.su.nii-vibha"nga show how these bhik.su.niis
were ill-treated and became objects of violence. They, therefore, were prohibited to stay
in the forest or to spend the rain-retreat alone where there was no Bhikkhu
sa"ngha.(138)
There are several stories about men who seduced or raped bhik.su.niis in the vinaya.
Stories about male violence against bhik.su.niis happened during the time of
Gautama Buddha.
. . . . Now at that time several monks and nuns came to be going along the high-road
from Saaketa to Saavatthii. Then these nuns spoke thus to these monks:
"We will go along with the masters."
"Sisters, it is not allowable, having arranged together with a nun, to go along the
same high-road. Either you go first, or we will go (first)."
"Honored sirs, the masters are the highest men, so let the masters go first."
Then as those nuns were going last thieves robbed them on the way and assaulted [raped]
them.(139)
* * *
. . . . Then as those nuns were crossing over last thieves robbed them and assaulted
[raped] them.(140)
* * *
. . . . Then these nuns, having approached a boatman, spoke thus:
"Please, sir, take us across."
Saying, "I am not able, ladies, to take both across at once."
He made one cross alone with him; one who was across seduced the one who was across, one
who was not across seduced the one who was not across.(141)
* * *
At that time several nuns were going along high-road to Saavatthii through the country
of Kosala. A certain nun there, wanting to relieve herself, having stayed behind alone,
went on afterwards. People, having seen that nun, seduced her.(142)
Gross explains:
Fears that women renunciates would be vulnerable to male violence were realistic.
Stories about male violence against nuns do occur, as do regulations designed to prevent
it. These regulations usually restrict women from more solit